In June of 2023, Becky (my wife) and I visited Rome, Italy.

On one of our days in Rome, we decided to explore central portion of the city by taking the subway from the train depot to the ‘Spanish Steps’ and then trek to the ‘Pantheon’.

Becky and I started our trek of Central Rome at the panoramic terrace of ‘Trinita dei Monti’ in front of the church of the same name that was built on ruins of the ancient ‘Villa of Lucullus’. In ancient Roman times, the whole area of the ‘Pincian Hill’ and the ‘Trinita dei Monti’ was a suburban zone occupied by large villas. The ‘Villa of Lucullus’, also called the ‘Gardens of Lucullus’, was built around 60 BC.

Imaged above, the Villa of ‘Lucullus’ may have been near a point where the ‘Aqua Virgo’ emerged from its underground aqueduct and crossed into an arch across the ‘Campus Martius’. The Villa of ‘Lucullus’ was on the summit of ‘Pincian Hill’ from which, even today, it is possible to admire the urban development of a city in harmony with the original shape of the land.

Imaged above, according to scientific data from drilling records, the ‘Pincian Hill’ is mostly consolidated volcanic ash, which was deposited during volcanic activity of the Sabatini volcanic field, north of Rome, and of the Alban Hills volcanic field, south of the city. interbedded with the tuffs are travertine spring deposits. The tuffs overlie clayey sediments of Pliocene age, not masked by a large staircase called the ‘Spanish Steps’, (pictured below).

From the ‘Trinita dei Monti’, Becky and I descended the ‘Spanish Steps’ to the ‘Piazza de Spagna’ & the ‘Fountain of the Barcaccia’ (leaking boat) by Pietro Bernini. We then trekked south to the next piazza (Mignanelli). There we could see the ‘Column of the Immaculate Conception’ (1856) commemorate the proclamation of the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary.

Pictured above, the ‘Column of the Immaculate Conception’ structure was a square marble base with statues of biblical figures at the corners that uphold a column of  Cipollino marble of 11.8 meters. Atop the column is a bronze statue of the Virgin Mary, the work of Giuseppe Obici. The standard imagery of the immaculate conception was used: [a virgin on a crescent, atop the world, stomping a serpent (a symbol of the original sin assigned to all humans since Adam and Eve; except the perfected sinless Virgin Mary)]. Becky and I continued down the street of “Propaganda”, where we then we turned left on “Nazareno”, and right on “Stamperia”, to make our approach on the ‘Trevi Fountain’.

Pictured above, construction of the fountain began in 1732, following a design by Nicola Salvi and using stone from the region. Travertine, (a sedimentary spring deposit from quarries near Tivoli), and marble, (a metamorphic rock from Carrara, in northern Italy), were used for the figures. The plaza was paved with small blocks of lava from flows along the Appian Way. For more than two millennia, Rome’s fountains have provided neighborhoods with clear, refreshing water from springs in the Apennines, the Alban Hills, an the Sabatini region, [a precious resource transported through aqueducts that were built during the Roman era and restored by the popes beginning in the 16th century], (imaged below).

Approximately 30m wide, the Trevi fountain dominated its small piazza and is one of Rome’s most easily recognized landmarks. It, among others, was and still is supplied by the Vergine aqueduct (Aqua Virgo), which brought water from springs at Salone, 16km east of Rome, via a circuitous route that enters the city from the north. Most of the Vergine aqueduct is underground and passes immediately under the Piazza Trevi. Although the fountain once supplied fresh water to the neighborhood, the flowing cascades are now recirculated and are no longer potable.

Pictured above, construction of the ‘Trevi Fountain’ took 30 years, between 1732 and 1762, using 2 architects, 10 sculptors, and many assistants. The fountain’s travertine base emulates nature, with rough stones, cascades, crevices, grottoes and carved representations of 30 plant species. The figures, including Oceanus (Neptune) and the Tritons, are carved in Carrara marble, on the finest natural materials used by the greatest sculptors.

Scientific analyses showed that the ‘Trevi Fountain’ is 89.2% travertine, 7.2% marble, and 3.6% travertine breccia. Travertine is a particularly useful rock type: (1) for the geologist, it provides clues to the dynamic history of the Apennines and adjacent sedimentary basins. (2) for the hydrologist, it reveals information about the evolution of the spring-waters. (3) for the archeologist or art historian, it contributes to the provenance of many sculptural pieces.

Travertine breccia was at one time a uniform, thin-layered, brittle spring deposit that was broken by faults. The angular pieces of rock were then cemented by younger travertine as water flowed through the rubble, (the final product was a breccia).

Pictured above, Becky and I continued our trek by walking up Via de Crociferi to the ‘Galleria del Sordi’. Halfway down ‘Via del Corso’ and a stone’s throw from the ‘Trevi Fountain’, was the historic ” Galleria del Sordi’ with its refined and unmistakable Art-Nouveau architecture.

Pictured above, we exited the ‘Galleria del Sordi’ to the ‘Via Del Corso’ and the ‘Piazza Colonna’. This was Rome’s main north-south boulevard, running straight through the neighborhood’s tangled streets. ‘Via del Corso’ was named for the rider-less horse races (corse) that took place here during Carnevale. In 1854, the Via became one of Rome’s first gas-lit streets and hosted the classiest boutiques. Nowadays most of ‘Via del Corso’ is closed to traffic for a few hours every evening and becomes a wonderful parade of Romans out for a stroll.

Pictured above, the ‘Piazza Colonna’ was named for the ‘Column of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius’, erected around 180AD. The column rests on a foundation 3.86m below the present ground level in a pit that was higher than the level of the ancient Via Flaminia. The column is 29.6m high. On it were carved reliefs describing the war of Marcus Aurelius against the Germans and the Sarmati, (tribes living along the Danube), [pictured below].

The ‘Column of Marcus Aurelius’ has survived centuries of damage and has required considerable restoration. The most evident damage, that of fracturing of the marble cylinders that make up the column, with a dislocation of about 10cm at the tenth cylinder, was caused by an earthquake in the Apennines that shook the City of Rome. It is believed that the damage occurred during the earthquake of 1349 AD, which had an epicenter near Cassino and Isernia and was the most disastrous historical earthquake to affect Rome. From an analysis of earthquake data, it is possible to deduce that at least once every 2 centuries earthquakes have damaged the celebrated monuments of Imperial, medieval, Renaissance, and baroque Rome, (imaged below).

Leaving the Piazza Colonna, Becky and I proceeded west to the Piazza Montecitorio in-front of Italy’s Parliament Building. Pictured below, the piazza contains the ‘Obelisk of Montecitorio’. This Obelisk is an ancient Egyptian red-granite obelisk of Psamtik II (595-589BC) from Heliopolis. Brought to Rome in 10BC by the Roman Emperor Augustus to be used as the gnomon of the ‘Solarium Augusti. It is 21.8m high, and 34m high with the base and globe on top.  

Becky and I trekked south across the ‘Piazza Montecitorio’, then west on Aquiro street, to approach the awesome site of the Pantheon. Pictured below, this remarkable building has survived flooding, modifications, and long periods of neglect over several thousand years. Emperor Hadrian (118-125AD) ordered the Pantheon built on the foundations of a temple that had been founded by Marcus Agrippa, (Pictured below).

The Pantheon was built with concrete. This is the reason for it’s longevity. The building’s dome is 43.3m high and 43.3m in diameter. The base of the dome, where it rests on load-bearing walls, is 7m thick. As it rises toward the opening in the crest, the dome gradually thins to 2m. In addition, the concrete mix changes from cement with a rock aggregate at the base to cement with pumice, (the very lightweight product of explosive volcanic eruptions), at the top. The engineers also used hollow cast-concrete coffers, which reduced the material’s weight but not its strength. The real secret of the long-lived dome is that it is made of ‘pozzolana’ concrete, which has resisted weathering, earthquakes, and poorly conceived modifications by later city leaders, (imaged below).

Roman engineers found that when they combined fine-grained, weathered volcanic ash (or crushed tuff) with lime cement, they could create ‘pozzolana’, a strong, water-resistant concrete. Their weathered volcanic ash came from the young volcanic field of Pozzuoli (Puteoli) {near Naples}. The Roman engineer Vitruvius specified a ratio of 1 part calcined lime to 3 parts of crushed ‘pozzolana’.

Pictured above, the Pantheon is one of the world’s best-known and oldest concrete structures. Constructed of ‘pozzolan’ concrete, (a mixture of crushed, weathered volcanic tuff, calcined lime, and water), the dome has survived changes in power, politics, invasion, and cultures.

Pictured above, preceding the entrance to the Pantheon is a large pronaos or portico, which measures about 34m by 16m and has 8 columns at the front and 3 columns at the sides. The original square was at a lower level than the present one and people had to go down 5 steps to enter the buildings.

Pictured above, with a height of 7.53m and a width of 4.90m, the door of the Pantheon is the largest remaining door from Roman times. The grating at the top of the door not only provides a useful source of light but along with the bronze pilasters and wooden entablature, is part of a system that opens and maintains the two enormous bronze doors.

Pictured above, inside the Pantheon we were struck by the atmosphere of this building. It was unique for the extraordinary state of conservation, imposing majesty and perfect geometry. The lower level had 8 wide exedrae or niches, which were alternately trapezoid and semi-circular, (one of these was used for the entrance). In the space between the chapels there were 8 aedicules with Corinthian columns crowned with curved and triangular pediments. Along the walls of the second level there were an order of small decorated squares framing false windows. But the most striking experience was when we gazed upwards at the dome of this monument and saw the huge opening through which the light passed, (pictured below).

Pictured above, the great dome of the Pantheon has a diameter of 43m and 30cm at the base. The central hole (oculus) has a diameter of around 9m. Five rows of 28 caisons decorate the vault, tapering off in size as they reach the top for a streamlining effect.

Pictured above, when we are inside the Pantheon on a sunny day we can see a large disc of light playing over the vault and walls. The course of the sun in the sky causes this light to behave differently inside the building every day of the year. But every year, on the same day, the same pattern is repeated for a calendar effect, (imaged below).

Imaged above, at the Winter Solstice the disc of sunlight entering through the oculus at midday strikes the highest caisson. At the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes, it strikes the cornice marking the lower edge of the caissons. At the Summer Solstice it floods the visitor at the entrance.

We could deduce that the phenomenon of the sun rays was also observed at the Pantheon when it was originally erected by Agrippa, friend and son-in-law of Augustus. It is proposed that Augustus used it as an astronomical ‘sun theater’. At exactly midday on the 21st of April, the doors of the Pantheon are illuminated by the sun, as if in a spotlight. The 21st of April is a highly significant date for the Romans, because it is on this day, in the year 753BC, that the foundation of the Eternal City began. It is therefore the birthday of Rome.

Pictured above, the Pantheon’s floor showed a series of parallel and perpendicular bands outlining some square panels, inside which were smaller squares in white pavonazetto marble with bluish-purple veins. The panels with the circles instead had ancient yellow marble frames with circles in dark grey or red porphyry. The entire floor was slightly convex that would drain the rainwater into special holes.

Pictured above, on the opposite side of the entrance there is the ‘High Altar’ of the Basilica of Sancta Maria ad Martyres. Behind the altar is an apse whose vault was decorated with mosaics. There was a copy of the 7th-century wooden panel of the Madonna with Child with its beaten silver covering, believed to be the work of St. Luke. At the sides of the ‘High Altar’ , framed by columns, are the statues of St. Rasius on the left and St. Anastasius on the right, (not seen in the photo). Joined to the apse was the wooden chancel, built in the mid-19th century by Luigi Poletti, the architect.

Pictured above, four of the remaining recesses in the Pantheon were chapels dedicated to St. Joseph, the Madonna of Clemency, the crucifixion, and the annunciation. Becky and I took the time to stand and look, as the other tourists dashed by. Each of them was beautifully decorated with fine Renaissance art – frescoes, paintings and sculptures.

Pictured above, the Pantheon has also periodically served as a burial place for illustrious Italians over the centuries that it has done service as a Christian church. Raphael, (pictured tomb on the left), started a trend for artists to choose the Pantheon as their final resting place when he was interred here in 1520, whilst the first kings of a united Italy were buried in the Pantheon in imposing tombs in the closing decades of the 19th century, [The tomb of King Victor Emanuel the Second pictured in the center; The tomb of King Umbert I, pictured on the right].

Pictured above, on the northern side of the Pantheon is a fountain that was supported by a complex sculptural base. It had an obelisk that shot-up on a false travertine cliff, on which a plinth with dolphins at the corners rises, while on two sides of the same, two monumental coats of arms of the Albani family were carved. The 17th and 18th centuries were a golden age for fountains in Rome, which began with the reconstruction of ruined Roman aqueducts and the construction by the Popes of mostra, or display fountains, to mark their termini. The new fountains were expressions of the new Baroque art, which was officially promoted by the Catholic Church as a way to win popular support against the Protestant Reformation. The fountains of Rome were examples of the principles of Baroque art. They were crowded with allegorical figures, and filled with emotion and movement. In these fountains, sculpture became the principal element, and the water was used simply to animate and decorate the sculptures.

Becky and I continued trekking west on the Giustiniani/Salvatore streets to the ‘Piazza Navona’. The ‘Piazza Navona’ became another grand theater-of-water, with three fountains, built in a line on the site of the Stadium of Domitian. The fountains at either end were created by Giacoma della Porta. Pictured above, the ‘Neptune  Fountain’ to the north, (1572) showed the God-of-the-Sea spearing an octopus, surrounded by tritons, sea horses and mermaids.

Pictured above, at the southern end of the ‘Piazzo Navona’ was the fountain called ‘Il Moro’. Possibly, an additional figure of Neptune riding a fish in a conch shell.

Pictured above, in the center of the ‘Piazza Navona’ was the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, (The Fountain of the Four Rivers) (1648–51). A highly theatrical fountain by Bernini, these statues represent rivers from the four continents, (the Nile, Danube, Plate River and Ganges). Over the whole structure was a 16m Egyptian obelisk, crowned by a cross with the emblem of the Pamphili family, representing Pope Innocent X, whose family palace was on the piazza. The fountains of ‘Piazza Navona’ had one drawback. The fountain’s water came from the Aqua Vergine, which had only a 7.0m drop from the source to the fountains. This meant the water could only trickle downwards and not jet very high upwards with a lack of pressure.

From the ‘Piazza Navona’, Becky and I trekked south to the main street of Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Across the street, we found an amazing museum for Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519). Artist and scientist; a man of ingenuity and universal talent of the Italian Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci fully embodied the universalist spirit of his times, taking it to greatest forms of expression in the most varied fields of art and knowledge. He was a painter, a sculptor, and architect, an engineer, a mathematician, an anatomist, a musician and an inventor. He was considered to be one of the greatest geniuses of humanity.

The amazing vastness of Leonardo’s scientific interests and the spread of his researches in the most different fields of knowledge is witnessed by the number of papers containing his drawings and annotations, (over 4,000). In the overall manuscripts, two fundamental types can be identified: real notebooks with every kind of notes that the artist used to take with him, and tidier files, dedicated to topics such as anatomy, optics, perspective, war-machines, birds’ flight, and water movement. The machines exhibited at this museum were built after interpreting some of the Vinci Codes papers containing Leonardo’s drawings and notes. The creation of the machines was performed by using wood, cords, ropes and glue only. I’ll only include a small percentage of the examples seen below.

Pictured above, the painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with His apostles; the painting is based on John’s Gospel 13:21, during which Jesus foretells that he will be betrayed by one of his disciples. The work measures 4.6 x 8.8m and can be found in the refectory of the convent of St. Mary of Graces in Milan. He preferred to paint on a wall as he painted on a drawing board; it is thought that the artist used an oil tempera based on linseed oil and egg spread on a two-fold coat of plaster. In the ‘Last Supper’ the presence of numerous details are visible only from a clos range and are astonishing.

Pictured above, in order to solve the problem of friction in machines, Leonardo devised various systems. In order to bear the thrust of a vertical axle, for example, both ball and roll bearing like the ones pictured above could be used. But the drawing of a bearing with a sliding ring is even more extraordinary. The ring allows the balls to move freely without touching each other. Leonardo’s ball bearing is incredibly modern and foreshadows some of today’s solutions.

Pictured above, the Lantern System. It is a combination of a real lantern which is formed by a series of small cylinders kept together by 2 discs and a toothed wheel with rungs. This mechanism is very useful by permits the increase or decrease of the number of revolution of an axis to the other.

Pictured above, the Eccentric Cam. The machine is a mechanical device useful in transforming rotary motion into reciprocal motion. This device allow carrying out the regular rhythmical percussion of a hammer. The crank is inserted directly on the eccentric cam to which it transmits the circular movement, the cam rotating gradually shifts the lever causing the hammer to raise. When the extremity of the level reaches the interruption on the cam truck, the lever suddenly goes back to its starting position letting fall by force of gravity the heavy hammer connected to it. At each complete turn of the cam corresponds a blow of the hammer.

Pictured above, the Self-Blocking System. The toothed wheel is employed in most machinery and often needs a safety device which well prevent the rotation of the work in the opposite direction. The name of the tooth’s pawl is a “servant”. The position and the inclination of the servant can vary as well as the shape of the teeth on which it operates, by inserting itself.

Pictured above, the Worm Screw. These are the systems for transmitting motion which appear most often in Leonardo’s machines. In order to transmit rotary movement he frequently uses the cogwheel whose cogs’ profiles are describe geometrically here. The helicoidal screw mechanism is preferable (created by the “endless screw”-cog wheel combination) since it’s safer and stronger because it “catches many of the wheel’s cogs” thus distributing the force.

Pictured above, Transformation of Continuous into Alternating Motion. The model refers to a textile machine. It shows how to wind a thread evenly around a rochet. It starts from a rotary movement of a connecting rod which moves back and forth and in an out of the hollow shaft. His diagram shows ways to transform circular into alternating motion.

Pictured above, the Chain. This system can connect two toothed wheels lying on the same plan. It is a flexible device with qualities of resistance and efficiency. It is a strong and efficient device that is still employed today without changes.

Pictured above, the Jack (toothed rack). This machine is easy to understand for anyone who has ever tried to change a tire. It is made from a crank, reduction gears and a rod with teeth which moves up and down.

Pictured above, the Study of Weights. This system comprises a series of pulleys and ropes. Leonardo analyzed their behavior and observed that on pound counterweight (applied at the end of the rope) is sufficient to balance the whole system. This description draw s attention to the proportional ratios (one pulley per unit of weight) that always distinguish Leonardo’s studies. The pulleys in the upper in the upper row are fixed, the pulleys in the lower row are mobile, the heavy load directly attached to the mobile ones making it easier to regular its lifting.

Pictured above, the Oil Press. This machine was built for squeezing olives. It is an example of the mechanization of agricultural labor. The horizontal lever was curved to the right to be pushed by horse-power and equipped on the left with counterbalance which has a toothed wheel acting as a female screw. The toothed wheel squeezes olives by pushing them against a round bag.

Pictured above, the Odometer. This is a machine for exact distance calculations. It is shaped like a wheelbarrow and has 2 cog wheels; The vertical one moves one notch each time the hub of the wheel on the ground turns; every time the vertical cog wheel completes a revolution an internal protrusion moves the other, horizontal wheel. This has holes in it, so that it can drop a stone or a ball into a special container each time it moves one notch. By saving and counting these stones one can calculate the number of revolutions of the wheel on the ground and thus measure distances.

Pictured above, the Portable Piano. Leonardo has produced many sketches or projects for musical instruments. The portable piano allowed the player to walk and play at the same time. It was fixed around the waist and played like a piano. Having a scale of 8 octaves, producing a sound similar to the viola by means of a complex system of pulleys and pendulum the musician operated it with his legs and the sound was thus created by some horsehair strings.

Pictured above, the Mechanical Drum. This is one of the many examples of Leonardo’s studies dedicated to this type of instrument. This drum could have been used on many occasions: in parades and processions along the city streets, in military parades and even in war in order to incite the soldiers to battle or to intimidate the enemy. In this drawing Leonardo, the cart was pulled by a man or an animal. Their movements turned the wheels and consequently all the mechanisms that are connected to them. The drum carts mechanisms are put in motion by a side crank.

Pictured above, the Double Hulled Boat and the Submarine. Among the inventions which are attributed to Leonardo the “submarine” is particularly fascinating because it foreshadows the distant future. The hypothesis that Leonardo actually thought of building a ship capable of submerging and returning to the surface seems plausible considering the drawing on the left side of the page above. The double-hulled boat which appears on the same page has often been connected with the studies on submersion of great pressures. One of the problems that Leonardo tackles is how to speed and to ease navigation. Naturally the shape of the hull had a primary importance and Leonardo used the shapes of fish as models since they are at home in the water.

Pictured above, Webbed Gloves and a System for Walking on the Water. These drawings by Leonardo are strange, rapid and extremely enjoyable while seeming to reveal Man’s pleasure in winning the battle against the elements.

Pictured above, Archimedes’ Screws and Water Wheels. Not an innovation, Leonardo drew a varied number of water lifting machines and often added ingenious improvements. The so called Archimedes’ screw is an inclined cylinder tightly coiled around, that draws up water by the rotation of the crank. Leonardo realized that there existed a connection between inclination and the number of coils around the cylinder.

Pictured above, the Dredge & Paddle Boat. At the time, sea and river navigation was the fastest and most efficient means of communication. Both for commercial and war needs. For this reason, the design of new vessels drew the attention of the Renaissance engineers. For Leonardo, the use of a paddle wheel as an alternative to the use of oars seemed to be decisive. He elaborated various ideas of paddle boats improvements operated by muscle power through crank handles or pedals that move a stake reel with an alternate movement.

Pictured above, the Hydraulic Saw. This machine was used for cutting large tree-trunks. The large paddle wheels were put in motion by running water presumably channeled through a mill. This mechanism transformed the hydraulic rotary motion into energy necessary to work a system of pulleys. They automatically pulled the carriage with the tree-trunk. At the same time this rotary motion performs a linear motion allowing the saw’s blade to go up and down and cut.

Pictured above, the Arched Bridge & Moveable Bridge. These are the “light and strong bridges” that Leonardo promised in his letter to “I1 Moro”. They can be built rapidly with materials that are easy to find and to transport (small tree trunks and strong ropes) and are meant primarily for military purposes. These bridges use the laws of static and of material resistance which Leonardo had developed while pursuing architectural interests.

Pictured above, the Movable Ladders and the Covered Cart for Attacking Fortifications. Leonardo devised techniques for assault as well as for defense and drew many types of rope ladders that can be carried easily to the foot of the walls. The movable assault ladder is quite interesting: it is made from units that can be taken apart and is linked to a “cog wheel-screw” mechanism which lengthens, shortens, raises and lowers the ladder. Leonardo also borrows a covered ladder with a movable base with wheels from antiquity.

Pictured above, the Tank. Leonardo designed a heavy wagon shaped like a tortoise armed with cannons on all sides and perhaps reinforce with metal plates. The problem was moving it.

Pictured above, the Catapult with a Winch. The catapult had a considerable firing range and was therefore used for targets even very far away. The 2 large leaf springs ensured a powerful thrust. When the leaf spring was loaded the 2 wooden arms were tensioned, curving back on themselves. Then, a weight was placed in the spoon and once it was ready for the launch. The operator only had to give a forceful turn to the front crank.

Pictured above, the Giant Cross-Bow. The figure of the archer gives us an idea of the proportions. The gigantic bow was supposed to be built from laminated sections so as to increase its flexibility and strength. The bow string is pulled by a screw mechanism which is shown in the detail study at lower right. The release mechanism is illustrated in its percussion and lever version by the two-devices drawn to the left. The wheels tilt in order to guarantee stable base for shooting.

Pictured above, the Machine Gun. The machine gun was a weapon with remarkable firepower. Once the cannons were loaded and ready to be fired they ensured a broad range of cover. This machine gun was easy to move and it could be aimed at different targets. The cannons’ height was regulated by a hand crank positioned on the rear of the machine.

Pictured above, Explosive & Ogival Cannon Balls. Leonardo’s passion for military engineering led him to deepen his studies of Ballistics. The use of bullets improved the accuracy and precision of shooting. The aerodynamic pointed shape and penetration stabilized the trajectory. He draws and designs pointed projectiles similar to the modern ones today. The Bombards drawing-clarity illustrates them in action and the study of projectiles fragmentation.

Pictured above, Flying Machines and the design for the Wing of an “Ornitottero”. Leonardo is convinced that if “Man can force his big artificial wings against the resistant air, and winning, he can rule and rise above it”. Armed with the enthusiasm of such a conviction Leonardo began to work on a machine powered by muscular activity alone the would allow a man to hover in the air by moving its wings like birds do. There are many drawings which show the various kinds of “ornitotteri” the flying machines designed by Leonardo. There are also some which show a man prone and intent on operating the mechanisms connected to the wings.

Pictured above, the Aerial Screw. This machine is the forerunner of the modern helicopter. It is a device that when rotated is supposed to lift off in flight. Leonardo perceived that in the air as well as in the water there was a thinner dynamic fluid which a machine could be ‘screwed or twist’ itself. The spiral form has been seen in the field of hydraulics system. It is based on the “Archimedes Screw” or the “Worm Screw”, but it should be noted that it is the first time a spiral form is applied in flight and air.

Pictured above, the Parachute. Leonardo wrote, “If a man has a tent made of clogged cloth each side of which is 12 armlengths wide and which is 12 tall, then he can jump from any great altitude without hurting himself”.

Pictured above, the Bicycle. The famous sketch of a pedal bike that was found among his manuscripts, is believed to be a doodle made by an Italian monk. Historians had concluded from the poor quality of the sketch that it did not come from Leonardo’s own-hand. The bike appears on the back of a sheet of authentic Leonardo sketches along with crude outlines of phalluses that were probably sketched by one of his adolescent apprentices. However, a 16th-century conservator later folded the sheet in half and glued it shut, hiding the obscene graffiti from view for nearly 500 years.

After Becky and I finished exploring the “Leonardo Museum”, we continued south to the “Campo de’ Fiori”. Pictured above, this bohemian piazza was watched over by a brooding statue of Giordano Bruno, an intellectual who was burned on this spot for heresy in 1600. The pedestal showed scenes from Bruno’s trial and execution, and reads, “And the flames rose up”. When this statue honoring Bruno was erected in 1889, the Vatican protested, but they were overruled by angry Campo locals. Bruno was condemned by the Catholic Church for developing the ‘Scientific Method’ in search for the truth. Unlike Galileo, Bruno refused to recant his writings under the threat of continued torture. [Ironically, this is the same location where Julius Caesar was stabbed to death by some of the members of the Roman Senate].