Becky (my wife) and I trekked in Italy of June of 2023. While there, we had the chance to explore the ancient ruins of the ‘Roman Forum’ in Rome. Rome is Italy’s political capital and the enduring legacy of the ancient world of the western coast of central Italy.

A question I asked! Why was this site chosen for Ancient Rome? For many reasons: proximity to a major river with access to the sea, plateaus affording protection, nearby sources of building materials, but, most significantly, clean drinking water from springs in the Apennine Mountains (pictured below).

Many people recognize Rome as a source of inspiration for historians, architects, artists, musicians, and theologians. However it’s interesting to note that the success of Rome would not have been possible without the myriad benefits provided by its geologic setting. Even the resiliency of its architecture and the stability of life on its hills are supported by its geologic framework.

Imaged above, the Tiber River, crucial to water transport into ancient Rome, was trapped on the west by the fault blocks of the Janiculum and Vatican hills. The Tiber’s east banks are volcanic plateaus, composed of deposits from explosive eruptions in the Alban Hills. In addition to forcing the Tiber toward the west, the deposits make up the ‘seven hills of Rome: Quirinal, Viminal, Aventine, Esquiline, Celian, Palatine, and the Capitoline, (the last four of these surround the Roman Forum). All the hills are erosional segments of a plateau that consisted of mostly volcanic tuffs that were erupted in the Alban Hills to the southeast of Rome.

Becky and I started our morning-trek of the Roman Forum area, by exploring the Capitoline Hill in the northwest corner, (imaged above & below). Capitoline Hill is a small plateau that was the center of power and religion for what was Western civilization 2,000 years ago. The Tarpeian Rock, a cliff on the southern edge, was used for throwing traitors to their death. Today the summit contains the Piazza del Campidoglio, designed by Michelangelo, and buildings on three sides, including the Palazzo Senatorio (Rome’s Town Hall), the Palazzo del Conservatori, and the Palazzo Nuovo (the last two are now museums).

Pictured above, the Capitoline Hill is one of the smallest of Rome’s 7 hills and consists to three main geologic units, (data from exploratory drills): (1) the base consists of sediments from the floodplain of the ancient Tiber, including sands and lake deposits; (2) several different pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrites), all erupted from sources in the Alban Hills; and (3) a carapace of river and lake sediments. As with the other 6 hills, the main framework that holds up this promontory consists of pyroclastic deposits (tuffs). Becky and I approached the hill through the ‘Piazzo del Campidoglio’ on-top.

Designed by Michelangelo, the layout of the piazza, is enclosed by three buildings that seem to open-up like a stage toward the city of Rome. Pictured below, at the top of the stairway are the statues of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux) leading their horses to water.

Pictured above, ‘Castor’ is on the left and ‘Pollux’ on the right. Castor and Pollux are either both gods or Pollux is a god and Castor is mortal. Their mother was Leda, who was famous for being raped by Zeus while he is in the form of a swan. Most stories have them hatched from an egg (since Zeus was a swan when they were conceived), along with their twin sisters, Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra. They are always seen together and always with horses, and they are harbingers of war, but they are also seen as protectors of the city of Rome.

Pictured above, at the front of the Palazzo del Senatorio, there was a double flight of stairs, also designed by Michelangelo. On either side of this staircase heading up to the second floor, two 1st-century river-god sculptures represent the Nile (left) and the Tiber (right). In the center of the staircase, the goddess of Rome, represented by Minerva, was made of the highly prestigious porphyry marble. Becky and I, decided to enter the ‘Palazzo Nuovo Capitoline Museum’ on our left.

Becky and I walked into the courtyard of the Capitoline Museums.. It seemed to be a great location for displaying some ancient works of art. Fragments of marble for the ‘Roman Emperor Constantine the Great’ were placed next to the right wall of the courtyard, (pictured above). Only the exposed flesh of the statue, representing Constantine seated on his throne, was made of marble. Everything else was probably made of wood and/or masonry. Constantine seemed to be depicted as a god here. Additionally, a group of reliefs were arranged on the left side of the courtyard. At the front of the courtyard, the unique group of the goddess Roma was placed in the back of the courtyard located inside the portico or niche. Pictured above on the right, The ‘Statue of Roma’, goddess of the city of Rome, wearing a helmet and seated on a throne, (from the Giardino Cesi).

Pictured above, the ‘Horse’ is an original Greek work dating from the middle of the 5th Century B.C.. The animal is ready to take off at a gallop, barely held back by the reins. Its back is open, which shows that the statue must once have included a rider. The masterful rendering of the horse’s anatomy, the lines of its muzzle and the artist’s attention to the smallest details of the body have led experts to attribute the work to a Greek sculptor. The bronze work was brought to Rome as war booty after Rome conquered Greece, in the middle of the 2nd century B.C..

Pictured above, the statue, known as ‘Esquiline Venus’ , represents the goddess girdling her hair with a strip of fabric. The figure appears without both arms as modern plaster integrations have been removed; the weight falls on the right leg, while the head and torso are slightly tilted forward and to the right, while the left leg is flexed. The goddess is completely naked, as she wears only sandals with straps adorned with little hearts.

Pictured above, Emperor Commodus was a greedy and selfish man that spent more than he should, ordering the murder and torture of many people. He often referred to himself as Hercules. This bust of Emperor Commodus is one of the most famous Roman portraits and contains many Herculean characteristics and is accompanied with 2 Tritons.

Pictured above, this statue depicts a ferocious lion attacking a helpless horse. It was believed the lion’s characteristics would have appealed to Romans and inspired them to fight. According to some, the statue became a symbol of Rome. Parts of the statue date back to around 300-325 BC.

Pictured above, in 1471 pope Sixtus IV presented to the Roman People a group of remarkable bronze statues, the ‘Camillus’, the ‘Spinario’, and the ‘She-wolf’. They marked the transformation of the Capitoline Hill into a place destined to the preservation of Rome’s ancient memories and is considered to be the foundation act of the Capitoline Museums, (the oldest public collection in the world). The ‘Spinario’ portrays a shepherd boy removing a thorn from his foot. The ‘She-wolf’ is the symbol of the city of Rome, depicted in this larger than life-size statue nursing the twins, Romulus and Remus. Legend states the she-wolf rescued the twins after an order was made to cast them into the Tiber River. Looked after by the she-wolf until found by a farmer, the twins went on to found the city of Rome as adults.

Pictured above, this beautifully wrought base is made of pentelic marble. It is square in shape and at each of its corners sits a sighthound. The bodies and tails of the dogs are done in relief.

Pictured above, Marsysas was a Phrygian Satyr who invented the music of the flute. He found the very first flute which had been crafted but cast away by the goddess Athena who had been displeased by the bloating of the cheeks. Marsyas later challenged the god Apollo to a musical contest but lost when the god demanded they play their instruments upside-down in the second round, (a feat ill-suited to the flute). As punishment for his hubris, Apollo had Marsyas tied to a tree and flayed alive. The rustic gods then transformed his blood into the streams of Rome.

One of the most interesting exhibits presented in the Capitoline Museums is a slightly over life-size Hellenistic style statue of Hercules. The statue was made of bronze and gilded, and presents Hercules while doing one of the twelve works, (getting the golden apple Hesperide and delivering it to Eurystheus). Here, he is holding out the golden apple.

Pictured above, a relief on a Sarcophagus made of proconnesian marble. At the center of the scene Meleager hunts the Calydonian boar before Artemis, the goddess of hunting, (note that the reclining-couple heads were left unfinished).

Pictured above, the great hall of the Horatii and the Curiatii was decorated with frescoes painted between 1595-1640 by Giuseppe Cesari. Listed in their order of execution, the frescoes begin with the scene of the ‘Discovery of the She-Wolf Nursing Romulus and Remus, (in-front of the bronze statue of ‘Innocent X Pamphilj’). On the main wall was the ‘Battle of Tullus Hostilius Against the People of Veii and Fidenae, (an episode from the war of expansion waged by the Romans against nearby towns in the days of Tullus Hostilius). Next come the ‘Combat Between the Horatii and the Curiatii, (which ended the war between Rome and the nearby city of Alba Longa). On the short wall between the two windows was the ‘Rape of the Sabine Women, (behind the marble statue of Urban VIII Barberini, sculpted by Gian Lorenzo Bernini).

Pictured above, the ‘Room of the Triumphs’ is named for the freize running below the ceiling. However, the decoration of this room included two paintings that impressed me: Paolo Piazza’s ‘The Dead Christ with St. Francis’ (on the left), and Pietro da Cortona’s ‘The Battle Between Alexander and Darius’ (on the right). The extraordinary bust known as the ‘Capitoline Brutus’ from the 4th Century BC, is one of the earliest Roman portraits.

Pictured above, in the ‘Room of the Geese’ the two bronze ducks have been displayed since 1727. In 1730, the ‘Bust of Michelangelo’ (on the left) sculpted by Daniele da Volterra was presented to the Capitoline Museums; the ‘Bust of Medusa’ (on the right) by Gian Lorenzo Bernini arrived the next year. Bernini created this piece in the fourth decade of the 17th century as a portrait of this most beautiful and deadly of the Gorgons captured in the terrible instant of her metamorphosis into stone by looking at herself in a mirrored shield.

Pictured above, ‘Artemis’ was the daughter of Zeus and Leto. She was also the sister of Apollo. In this cult statue in the Hall of Eagles, she’s shown in sarcophagus-like stance with a tapered body signifying power. She’s adorned with oval shapes that look like breasts. But they’re not; they’re bull’s testicles. Additionally, there happens to be some flowers and bees thrown in. These decorations show her role as the Greek goddess of fertility. Her hands are outstretched that shows her desire to promote fertility.

At noon, Becky and I left the Capitoline Museum and headed south-east of the hill on Via Dei Fori Imperiali to the Palatine Hill entrance. Pictured above, we paused to take a look at the Roman Forum towards Palatine Hill, (our goal). From the view-point we could see the ‘triumphal arch of Septimus Severus’. It was built in 203 AD in the remembrance of his 10 years as Emperor (African-born) and because of his victory against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. It was also dedicated to his sons Caracalla and Geta. West of the arch was the ‘Pillar of Phocas’. It was erected in honor of Emperor Phocas, who gave the pantheon the Pope, who made it into a church. Maybe this was why it was still standing. This was the Forum’s last monument (608AD), a gift from the powerful Byzantine Empire to a fallen empire, Rome. Additionally, the ‘Rostrum’ next to the ‘Pillar of Phocas’, was a raised platform, 3 meters high and 20 meters long, decorated with statues & columns. Rome orators tried to draw a crowd and sway public opinion. It was used by Mark Antony and Cicero.

Pictured above, the ‘Temple of Saturn’ was originally from the 5th century BC. This temple housed the treasury of the state. Also, weapons were kept here in case the Gauls would show up. Saturn was the father of Jupiter. He ruled as the highest god before him. He once heard a prophecy that one of his sons would one day take his place, so every time he fathered a son he would immediately eat him. Jupiter’s mother was smart. Instead of giving Saturn his son to eat, she wrapped a stone in a cloth and Saturn ate the stone. He never found out, until Jupiter grew up and replace him as Highest God. Just east of the ‘Temple of Saturn’ is the ‘Temple of Vespasian and Titus’ with only 3 Corinthian columns left. Both Emperors were deified after their death. They were responsible for the building of the Colosseum. It was a short-lived dynasty, because after Titus died his brother Domitian became Emperor and murdered.

As Becky and I walked down (southwest) ‘Via dei Fori Imperiali’, towards the Colosseum, we could see the Forums of the Caesars on both sides of the street. As Rome grew the original forum became too small, so successive Emperors expanded the forum with their own ones. The forum of Vespasian is part of the ‘Imperial fora’ that Emperors built, because the Roman Forum, the main market and square of Rome become too small. The remains of these fora can be found under the main ‘Via dei Fori Imperili’ which was constructed under Mussolini. Pictured above, are the remains of the ‘Temple of Venus Genetrix’ that was built by Augustus.

Pictured above, the square of the Forum of Caesar was built on the architectural model of the Greek porticoes; it presents a temple at the center of one of its short side following the Etruscan and Italic fashion. Imaged above, the Caesars’ Forum, with a rectangular plan, was actually surrounded on 3 sides by porticoes with rooms, whereas the ‘Temple of Venus Genetrix’ dominated the center of the north side.

By the end of Antiquity, Caesar’s Forum was no longer in use and its structures were gradually demolished and used as a quarry for new buildings. By the middle of the 9th century, the square was occupied by orchards, vineyards and vegetable gardens, with small houses. Toward the 11th century, the area was abandoned and became a marsh. In this context, a number of churches were built on-top of the marsh, (pictured above). Note that the ‘Mamertine Prison’ is one of the oldest surviving prisons in the world. It dates from 64 BC and was mainly used to put prisoners who were sentenced to death. When Nero was in power both Peter and Paul spent time in this prison. Pope Sylvester I made it into a Church.

Pictured above, the ‘Curia’ was the most important political building in the Forum. While the present building dates from 283 AD, this was the site of Rome’s official center of government since the birth of the republic. 300 senators, elected by the citizens of Rome, met here to debate and create the laws of the land. Their wooden seats once circled the building in three tiers; the Senate president’s podium sat at the far end. Rome prided itself on being a republic. The ‘Curia’ building was well-preserved, having been used as a church since early Christian times.

Pictured above, the Palatine Hill was easily identified from all sides, with it’s prominent tablelike form, covered with ruins and groves of trees. One of Rome’s top attractions, the palatine was believed to be the first of Rome’s 7 hills to be inhabited and perhaps the original nucleus from which the great city evolved.

Pictured above, the Palatine Hill is composed of rocks very similar to the sequence that underlies the Capitoline, (a series of pyroclastic flow deposits from the Alban Hills that were deposited on a surface of river and marsh deposits). The more or less tabular stack of deposits was later incised by streams flowing from the plateau into the Tiber, leaving the present plateau as an erosional remnant.

Rome lasted 1,000, (500 years of growth, 200 years of peak power, and 300 years of gradual decay). The fall had many causes, (corruption, plagues, crumbling infrastructure, and a false economy based on spoils of war). On the borders, barbarian tribes poured in , pushing the Roman legions back. The Europe-wide empire gradually shrank to little more than the city of Rome. In 410 AD, barbarians even looted Rome itself, leveling many of the buildings in the Forum, (pictured above).

Pictured above, between the years 70-75AD, (following the civil war for succession to the Empire and after the bloody repression of the Jewish revolt), the emperor Vespasion built a shrine dedicated to the Peace. The shrine was called ‘Temple of Peace’. Imaged above, the ‘Temple of Peace’ was composed by a large porticoes square with a temple at the end, flanked by two halls. The complex became an integral part of the 5 Imperial Fora, (used for administration of justice). However, the ‘Temple of Peace hosted a rich collection of sculptures and paintings, along with a famous scientific and literary library making this area as a “cultural center” adorned with creations of the human mind.

While Becky and I paid for the entrance fee for the Palatine Hill and headed for the stairs, we passed the ‘Aviary’. The stairs flanking the ‘Teatro del Fontanone’ lead up to two pavilions placed at the top of tis complex theatrical composition of terraces starting from the original entrance to the Gardens. Pictured above, originally used as an aviary, these rooms had a light roof in copper netting with and exotic profile, arched windows on several sides and graffiti on the outer walls.

Pictured above, stands the ‘Theatre of the Great Fountain’, a terrace closed on the uphill side by a large monumental facade concealing the underground rooms of the foundations of the “Domus Tiberiana” behind it. the theatrical composition was adorned with the finest and rarest statues in the collection, such as the two kneeling Prisoners mad of pavanazzetto and bigio morato marble, used to hold plant pots, and the two statues of priestesses of the Egyptian goddess Isis, also in bigio morato marble, placed in the niches of the first landing of the staircase.

Imaged above, the Roman Forum is a rectangular valley running roughly east (the Colosseum end) to west (Capitoline Hill, with its bell tower). The Roman Forum once was the heart of Rome. From the 6th century BC, this was the place where the most important public buildings stood. It was the political and social center of the first republic and then the empire. Before, this area was swamp. The roman’s drained the water and transported the water to the nearby Tiber River.

Pictured above, the ‘Via Sacra’ was the main road of the forum. Military and religious processions were held here who all ended at the temple of Jupiter on Capitoline hill. Many army leader and Emperor were welcomed here. If a victory was obtained someone was allowed to hold a procession to show the spoils of war. Many barbarian kings were also shown to the people in chains or cages on this road.

Pictured above, Becky and I could see most of the Roman Forum from the Palatine Hill. Looking north and down, we could see the ‘Temple of Castor and Pollux’. It was built in 484 BC. These 3 columns have become the most photographed sight in the Forum. The temple commemorated the Roman victory over Tarquin, the notorious Etruscan king who oppressed them. As a symbol of Rome’s self-governing Republic, the temple was often used as a meeting place of senators, and its front steps served as a podium for free speech.

Pictured above, Becky and I could see most of the Roman Forum from the Palatine Hill. Immediately, we noticed a building with an unusual shape east of us. Apparently it was called the so-called Temple of Romulus. It was built by the emperor Maxentius in 307AD in honor of his son wo died in childhood. The circular building was flanked by two apsidal halls opened onto the front with little porticoes decorated with porphyry columns. The bronze door is original.

Pictured above, this structure, (seen from the Palatine Hill) is the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine. It was stared by Constantine’s rival Emperor Maxentius in 308AD and completed under Constantine. This building was the largest on the Forum, (above image on the left was taken from “Rick Steves’ Pocket Rome” 2014). Half of it is still standing, the other half has disappeared. The roof was covered with gilded tiles, which were later used for the old Sant Peter’s. The building was a Roman basilica, so it did not have a religious function. It serves as courtroom and marketplace. Inside, in one of the niches, a huge statue of Constantine stood. The influence of this building has been enormous for the future of Architecture.

Pictured above, the ‘Vestal Virgins’ lived in this two-story building surrounding a long central courtyard with two pools at one end. Rows of statues depicting leading ‘Vestal Virgins’ flanked the courtyard. The place was the model, (both architecturally & sexually), for medieval convents and monasteries. [Chosen from noble families before they reached the age of 10, the Vestal Virgins served a 30 year term with a vow of chastity].

After hanging our on Palatine Hill for a while, Becky and I decided to explore the Roman Forum on the ground level. We hiked back down the hill and entered the Roman Forum from the southern side. Along the way, we could the see ‘Neronian Foundations’. The concrete foundations that run from the Forum around the corner towards the Palatine Hill, alongside the Arch of Titus, probably pertain to the enormous portico that, according t the ancient sources, Nero had constructed as the vestibule of his Domus Aurea. It extended for a length of 300m from the Forum to the area of the Temple of Venus and Roma, and enclosed the colossal statue of Nero 35m high, that rose in the location where the temple later was built.

Becky and I turned down the Via Sacra, when we walked under the ‘Arch of Titus’. Pictured above, it was built in 81 AD in honor of Emperor Titus who had quelled the rebellion in Jerusalem and had conquered that city. He took the treasure of the Temple and in the arch we could see the kind of things he took, (i.e. Jewish 7-armed candleholder).

Just past the ‘Arch of Titus’, Becky and I looked left, (west), to see where we came from and ‘Caligula’s Palace’ (pictured above). Emperor Caligula (ruled 37-41AD), had a huge palace on Palatine Hill overlooking the Forum. It actually sprawled down the hillside into the Forum. Caligula was not a nice person. He tortured enemies and stole senators’ wives. But Rome’s luxury-loving emperors only added to the glory of the Forum, with each one trying to make his mark on history.

Turning to our right on the Via Sacra, Becky and I could see the ‘Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina’. Pictured above, this temple honors Emperor Antoninum Pius (138-161AD) and his deified wife, Faustina. The 16m tall Corinthian (leafy) columns supported brightly painted statues in the pediment, and the whole building capped with a gleaming bronze roof. Antoninus was one of the adoptive (appointed) Emperors and not very famous, even he was very good Emperor. The building is still standing because it was transformed into a church in the middle ages.

Pictured above, Becky and I walked further north on Via Sacra, when we saw on our right, the ‘Basilica Aemilia’, and on the left, ‘Temple of Julias Caesar’. A basilica was a Roman hall of justice. Roman citizens came to the ‘Basilica Aemilia’ to work out matters such as inheritances and building permits, or to sue somebody. It was a long, rectangular building with stubby columns all in a row that forms a central hall flanked by two side aisles. The ‘Temple of Caesar was built in 29BC by Emperor Augustus. This was the place where the body of Julius Caesar was burned after he had been murdered in the senate. Becky and I walked inside to see a space which was used as an altar. On March 15th, Roman’s remember him by putting flowers on this altar.

Pictured above, partially reconstructed in the 20th century, the ‘Temple of Vesta’ was linked to one of Rome’s most ancient and most important cults. Here the Vestal Virgins tended the sacred fire which was to burn perpetually as a symbol of the city’s life force. Men, (with the exception of the Pontifex Maximus), were severely prohibited from entering. All that remains is the podium on which the columns stood; the circular monument was reconstructed on several occasions. Located near the ‘Temple of Vesta’, the ‘Regia’ was believed to have been built by king Numa Pompilius as the place where the kings of Rome exercised their political and religious power. The plan resembles that of archaic houses and its royal nature is attested by the rich architectural terra-cottas found here.

Pictured above, north of the ‘Temple of Caster & Pollux’ and on the western side of the Roman Forum is the ruins of the ‘Basilica Iulia’. Like all the other basilicas, this was a building to be used as a covered space for all different kind of social functions. It was begun be Julius Caesar in 54 BC in place of the Basilica Sempronia and tabernae veteres. The rectangular building was surrounded on all 4 sides by a double colonnaded portico, of which only the bases of the pillars survive.

Pictured above, the ‘Main Square’, was a flat patch about the size of a football field, stretching to the foot of Captoline Hill and the ‘Tabularium’. Surrounding it temples, law courts, government buildings, and triumphal arches. The ‘Square’ was the busiest and most crowded. Rome was born right there with a history of Romulus and Remus raised here. Ancient Rome’s population exceeded one million, and many spent their time here.

Becky and I turned around and headed south on Via Sacra, to spend the late afternoon exploring the Colosseum. On our way back, we spotted the interesting ‘Carcer’ building on the left. Pictured above, the 3 small rooms opening onto a corridor with walls made of large tufa blocks and travertine door and window frames are generally ascribed to a Carcer, (prison). However, it is thought by some to be a brothel.

The Romans never knew this building as the Colosseum; they called it the Flavian Amphitheater. An Amphitheater is basically a building which consists of 2 theaters put together. It was called Flavian after the name of the ruling family that constructed it. It was Emperor Vespasian, the first of the Flavian emperors, who had it built. He was the Emperor that managed to take power in he civil war that followed Nero’s death. To get the people to like him, he constructed the Colosseum, right on top of Nero’s enormous villa, the Domus Aurea, {an enormous palace created after the big fire}. Unlike Nero, Vespasian built a structure for the people instead of a structure for himself. This was a symbolic gesture.

The Colosseum was an arena for gladiator contests and public spectacles. To accommodate as many people as possible, they stuck two semicircular theaters together to create one freestanding amphitheater. Imaged above, the outside was decorated with a 33m tall bronze colossal-statue of Nero, (note that this is where the name Colosseum came from). Towering 50m high, it could accommodate 50,000 fans.

Pictured above, the Romans pioneered the use of concrete and the rounded arch, which enabled them to build this enormous scale. The exterior was a skeleton of 389,000 m³ of travertine stone. Each of the pillars flanking the ground-level arches, weighed 5 tons.

It took 4 years to bring the giant stones from Tivoli and another year to put them into a structure. They stacked stone blocks (without mortar) into the shape of an arch, supported temporarily by wooden scaffolding. Finally they wedged a keystone into the top of the arch.

Imaged above, the 4 story facade was decorated with mostly ‘Greek colomns, [Doric-like Tuscan columns on the ground level, Ionic on the second story, Corinthian on the next level, and at the top, half-columns with a mix of all three]. Greek statues stood in the arches of the middle two stories (picture below).

Imaged above, you can see the corbels that supported the velum, a movable awning made of wood and fabric operated by the sailors of the fleet at Misenum to shade spectators from the sun. The south side was damaged by earthquakes in the 5th and 6th centuries, and dismantled to scavenge its materials.

Using the scientific data from exploratory-drills, the Colosseum had been constructed across the boundary between Pleistocene age sedimentary rocks and tuffs (volcanic deposits from the Alban Hills) and the unconsolidated alluvium of a creek that ran between the Platine, Esquiline, and Celian hills and then into the Tiber through what is now the valley containing the Circus Maximus. Despite its massive, 13m thick concrete foundation, the variation in rock types under the stadium becomes evident when one looks at structural damage of the southern side that overlies the poorly consolidated sediment, (caused by the excessive ground acceleration within the alluvium during large earthquakes). Only a third of the original Colosseum remains since the earthquakes destroyed the rest.

Roman fans walked through ground-floor entrances, including the emperor’s private entrance on the north side. Their ticket was a piece of pottery marked with entrance, section, row, and seat number (pictured below). The Colosseum had 80 entrance arches: 76 of them numbered, were for the spectators; 4, at the ends of the main axes, were reserved for the emperor, political and religious authorities and the performers in the games.

Pictured above, the amphitheater was built out of travertine blocks (load-bearing structures and attic wall), blocks of tuff (radial walls and underground partitions) and bricks.

Pictured above, the Colosseum had an oval plan, with the main axis measuring 188m and the smaller axis 156m. The ratio of length to width is 5:3, often called the golden ratio. The roman architects apparently wanted their structure to embody the perfect 3 by 5 mathematical order they thought existed in nature and had mystical properties.

At the center was the arena, a wooden platform with a sand-covered surface (harena), on which the shows took place. All around ran the tiered seating (cavea), holding between 40,000 and 70,000 spectators and divided into 5 horizontal sectors (maeniana) separated by aisles.

Imaged below, the seats (loca) of the Colosseum were arranged in a strict order: the best ones, close to the arena, were reserved for senators. The rear sector, or maenianum primum, was for knights (equited), while two sectors of the maenianum secundum seated progressively lower social classes. The worst seats, inconvenient to reach and offering a poor view, were in the maenianum summum, the colonnaded portico at the top of the cavea, with wooden seats reserved for the plebs. The best view was from the imperial box, (it was placed at the south-east entrance, on the shorter axis of the monument). The Senators sat on marble seats (subsellia) and, unlike spectators, were entitled to have their names engraved on the blocks of the parapet indicating their reserved seats.

Looking into the complex web of passageways beneath the arena, Becky and I could imagine how busy the backstage action was. preparations for the spectacles were made in the underground levels. The machinery was invisible to the public, covered by the floor of the arena in which trapdoors opened: men and animals emerged unexpectedly, raised by 80 different freight elevators with a complex system of winches, (pictured below). Built of wood for the opening of the Colosseum, the underground levels were rebuilt by Domitian into permanent masonry.

The underground areas covered about half a hectare. 14 passages were placed symmetrically on either side of the large central corridor, (6 were straight, 2 semi-elliptical and 6 curvilinear).

At the ends of the longer axis were the control rooms; placed at the sides of the central gallery, which housed large freight elevators, and were flanked by converging galleries used as the docks for the naval battles at the opening. When the arena was replaced by masonry, aquatic spectacles were no longer presented.

Shows in the amphitheater were organized by an editor, who was a magistrate, or, in Rome, the emperor. The editor took care of the expenses of putting on the performances, the recruitment of the gladiators, and the supply of animals, (from all over Europe & Africa). The games were put on for the people free of charge on the occasion of festivals, (feriae), or to celebrate special events, (military victories, coronations, anniversaries). In some cases the shows went on for several days, as in the case of the 100 day inauguration of the Amphitheater.

The day of the games, announced by public notices on the city walls, began with a procession, (the ‘editor’ was preceded by the musicians who accompanied the shows, and by people carrying placards announcing the reasons for the death sentences and the names of the fighters). Finally, the protagonists paraded the gladiators with their parade arms, the richly dressed hunters, and those condemned to punishment in chains.

Pictured above, hunting shows and capital punishments by exposure to animals were put on in the course of the morning, (during the interval executions by methods other than the damnatio often took place), and in the afternoon there followed the gladiatorial games. The evening before the games, were offered a coena libera, in which their last wishes were fulfilled.

Pictured above, gladiators wielded swords, protected only with a shield and a heavy helmet. Others represented fighting fishermen, with a net to snare opponents and a trident to spear them. The gladiators were usually slaves, criminals, or poor people who got their chance for freedom, wealth, and fame in the ring. They learned to fight in training schools, then battled their way up the ranks. The best were rewarded like our modern sports stars with fan clubs, great wealth, and yes, product endorsements.

Pictured above, the animals involved with the entertainment of the Colosseum included: lions, tigers, bears, crocodiles, elephants and hippos. They were kept in cages beneath the arena floor, then lifted up in the elevators. Released at floor level, animals would pop out from behind blinds into the arena, surprising the gladiators. Nets ringed the arena to protect the crowd. The stadium was inaugurated with a 100-day festival in which 2,000 men and 9,000 animals were killed. Colosseum employees squirted perfumes around the stadium to make the stench of blood.

Next to the Colosseum, (on the northern side), we could see the triumphal arch which was built in honor of emperor Constantine. He was one of the most important figures in western history. He was the first emperor the became Christian. This was the last monument built in classical Rome, because emperor Constantine soon moved the capital to a new city on the Bosporus, which came to be known as Constantinople, now Istanbul.

On the Arch of Constantine, it is inscribed: “The senate and the people of Rome devote this arch to Constantine, because he liberated the state from tyranny and infighting thanks to his godly inspiration and greatness of his mind”.